The Constitution never took a clear stand on the issue, and the people began to see it more as source of sectional discord and tension and they ultimately began to see it as a failure to the union it had created., The Constitution can be interpreted in many different ways, which leads to sectional discord and tension. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. John C. Calhoun: Champion of states rights. He wanted that the constitution respect their first amendment that was have the liberty of freedom, and it is shown that he was finding a resolution to this. Although the compromise stated where slavery was allowed it did not help clarify who or what could be consider a slave because the constitution says we and is not really clear who is a part of we. -ms-transition: all 0.3s ease 0s; Under his authority, much of Alien and Sedition Acts were discarded. And in the Age of Jackson, we see the issue arise again in relation to the tariffs. Four years later, the THe tariff was named "Tariff of Abominations" It was orignally, Throughout the great American history, Americans have been through a colossal amount of conflicts, and wars. In the address that he wrote to accompany the Ordinance of Nullification, he further elucidated his states rights theory of the Constitution, stating in part that. It stated also Calhoun's Doctrine of nullification, the idea that a state has the right to reject federal law..The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions (or Resolves) were important political statements in favor of states' rights written secretly by Vice President Thomas Jefferson (who would later become president) and James Madison in 1798. I have one issue with all of this. The author of the Was that why Southern States seceded during the civil war? When Calhoun was elected as the vice president, John Caldwell Calhoun was a politician from South Carolina. The state would be obliged to obey only if the law were made an amendment to the Constitution by three-fourths of the states. Why was the tariff of 1828 so unpopular in the South? Be it good or bad, it has grown up with our society and institutions, and is so interwoven with them, that to destroy it would be to destroy us as a people (Calhoun). The laws also came about at a time when the country was almost going to war with France. Direct link to David Alexander's post Since this wasn't photogr, Posted 3 years ago. This meant that South Carolina would become its own country. Virginia and Kentucky passed their settlements. He was elected to the South Carolina state legislature in 1808 and to the United States House of Representatives in 1811. The states, according to Jefferson, retained the authority to determine when the federal government had exceeded its powers and could declare acts to be void in their jurisdictions. John C. Calhoun wrote the South Carolina Exposition and Protest in 1828 during the nullification crisis. Nothing was really done to address the Alien and Sedition Acts until Thomas Jefferson was elected President in 1801. After the U.S. asked France for New Orleans they offered all the land west of the Mississippi river for just $5 million more. This fearful mentality was rampant in the South and South Carolina was the first to act on it through this, The Virginia and Kentucky resolutions were passed in 1798. In the times preceding the war, both sides could not reach a compromise. Was this answer helpful? WebIn the Kentucky resolutions, Thomas Jefferson cites the passing of the Aliens and Sedition Acts as unconstitutional, while John C Calhoun, in the South Carolina exposition and Pellentesque dapibus effic, View answer & additonal benefits from the subscription, Explore recently answered questions from the same subject, Explore documents and answered questions from similar courses. The problems arose mainly from the issue of slavery, and came largely after the Mexican war. First, they were both deliberate actions and efforts by states to stand up against the federal government enforcing their rights. The South Carolina Exposition and Protest, also known as Calhoun's Exposition, was written in 1828 by John C. Calhoun, the Vice President of the United States under Andrew Jackson. Calhoun once have been willing to consider secession as a last resort. Slavery was so interwoven in the life of Southerners; however, Northerns wanted to abolish it while Southerners wanted to preserve it. The colony of Massachusetts was settled in 1620, by William Bradford and John Winthrop. Once it was enacted, it became a number one sectional issue for the South. These pro-slavery theorists championed a class-sensitive, We cannot say that this decision was bad or unfair for both camps either. There was a high standard in which they believed needed to be upheld to keep order. The tariff was so unpopular in the South that it generated threats of secession. In the Liberty and Union speech, Daniel Webster addresses the topic and opposes the doctrine by stating how the government and Constitution was created by and for the people and on how the American people have preserved their own chosen Constitution for the past 40 years since it has been created. They even threatened to leave the United States because they did not like what the congress was doing. These two republicans knew something needed to be done for the central government to be limited and the states to gain more power., There is always a purpose for papers such as these, and the purpose here was to allay the fears of the people; the fear that this new Constitution wouldnt work, the fear that there was no solution to the political instability the Articles of Confederation had, and the fear that the government would be too strong or controlling. The Kentucky Resolutions were written by Jefferson and passed by the state legislature on November 16, 1798, with one more being passed the following year on December 3, 1799. Yet the debate over the power of each level of government continued to be debated, and this debate formed some of the reasoning behind having a Bill of Rights, led to the formation of our two political parties, and formed the basis of many of our conflicts in U.S. history. The lack of nationality, I believe, is one of the great evils of the times Senator John Sherman stated on February 10, 1863. Abolitionists argued against slavery because of its harsh conditions being stuffed into the hulls of a ship like cargo. This also had its mark on later political decisions finally culminating in a total war. This document came about as a result of the laws of Congress known as the Alien and Sedition Acts. The doctrine of nullification had been advocated by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions of 179899. WebThe Kentucky Resolution declared in part, [T]he several states who formed that instrument [the Constitution], being sovereign and independent, have the unquestionable molestie consequat, ultrices ac magna. He was the chairman on the committees that passed bills supporting roads, permanent roads, and a strong army and navy. Both documents rendered such moves by Congress as null and void, and, therefore, unconstitutional. The delegates to the convention threatened to secede if the federal government forcibly sought to collect import duties. Like most of the great controversial documents in American politics it took the form of a discourse on the meaning of the Constitution. The political atmosphere was so heated during this time frame because so many people had different opinions about who was right and who was wrong and when someone or two people who did not agree with james adams or congress and came up with resolutions it caused the alien and sedition acts to become, The United States of America and Frances alliance had badly deteriorated after the French Revolution came to a completion in the late 1790s. In your essay, you should: Write an These resolutions, likewise, grants the right to decide as to the constitutionality of such acts to the states and not to the federal government. Although the other states rejected Kentucky and Virginias invitation to join their challenge of federal authority at the time, the concept of nullification was applied in later disputes involving states rights. Calhoun got his ideas from Madison, Jefferson and the tenth amendment of the constitution. Finally, working conditions were long and hard, especially for field workers, and violence was an ever-present part of life. Did he make any good points? It cannot be subverted without drenching the county in blood, and extirpating one or the other of the races. John C. Calhoun built his argument for South Carolinas right to block the imposition of federal tariffs on the doctrine of nullification espoused by James Madison and Thomas Jefferson, respectively, in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions passed by the legislatures of those states in 1798. He argued that since the federal government was a creation of that states-not the courts or congress- were the final arbiters of the constitutionality of the federal laws (Brinkley 206). WebSouth Carolina Exposition and Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions View Writing Issues File Filter Results The South Carolina Exposition and Protest, also known as Second, while Thomas Jefferson authored the resolution, John Calhoun wrote the exposition. The nullification crisis was a conflict between the U.S. state of South Carolina and the federal government of the United States in 183233. This is not an example Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. At this time there was an increasing sectional conflict between the North and the South. The company was controlled by two men, Walter Rolly and John Cabot, who sought new opportunities for profit. Jackson did not agree in letting a state nullify Federal, The South Carolina convention nullified the Tariff of 1832, which made Jackson have a tough decision to make, use forces to bring the state into line or let the state make themselves into an independent state. (CITING?) Although the issue of slavery had never been fully resolved, it became a very heated subject during the 1850s. He shall have power by and with evidence and consent of the senate,to make treaties. This is saying that Jefferson has the power to make treaties with the consent of senate. It means that the president has done something unconstitutional, like a crime. If they did not, then President Jackson had the right to harshly make South Carolina do it, by using the army. For many reasons, the South evidently did not like what the constitution said. Direct link to Hecretary Bird's post I don't know about any la, Posted 6 years ago. Congress passed the Act in a bid to protect the growing economy in the North. The resolutions declared that the Constitution was a "compact. " -moz-border-radius: 5px; The Virginia-Kentucky resolutions made it clear all acts that are not developed in line with the Congress Acts tend to violate the right of freely examining public characters, as well as the free communication of the people. It declared that the people of South Carolina shall consider all acts developed by the Federal Government to abolish or shut its ports, or block free entry of vessels to the ports. font-family: 'Roboto', sans-serif; The significance of Calhoun was that he had a major role in the breaking up of the South and the North. The tariff reduced the amount of cotton being bought by foreign countries in the South. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. He was a leading member of the old Republican party (later the Democratic party). These radicals continued to view the federal government with intense suspicion and threatened to secede every time a federal policy or law was perceived as antagonistic to the interests of the slaveholding South. How was the nullification crisis resolved? }, We write fresh, unique and premium quality academic papers just for you. Be sure to revise and edit carefully. 0. Teaching American History in South Carolina. They thought something had to be done. WebThe South Carolina legislature did not formally adopt Calhoun's Exposition, but printed it with amendments, together with its own protest, in December 1828. When South Carolina called it unconstitutional they were really angry. The Kentucky Resolution and the South Carolina Exposition and Protest have some factors in common. Thebodyof the essay will include at least three paragraphs (though you can write more with this assignment, you will want four body paragraphs) that analyze and evaluate the idea of nullification. Write a conclusion that answers whether or not a state should have the ability to nullify a national law, and if so, under what circumstances? .input-group .form-control { Thats when South Carolina Exposition and Protest came into play. WebExpert Answer 100% (2 ratings) What both "The Kentucky Resolutions" and "South Carolina Exposition and protest" have in common was that both the incidents involved The justification was published in the "Causes of Secession" document. States should not have the ability to nullify federal laws that they deem unconstitutional. The authors of the resolutions remained anonymous, but were written by James Madison and Thomas Jefferson, who were upset with how the Federalists were ruling the nation. Thirdly, for both documents, their authors were vice presidents at the time who concealed their identities. When South Carolina threatened to secede if it were forced to pay the tariffs, U.S. Pres. Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. WebSouth Carolina protested this tariff strongly than any other state through the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions made by Madison and Jefferson that supported the states rights (Aboukhadijeh, Nullification Crisis). Since this wasn't photograph, I'd say it was a poor artist's fault. Agriculture in South Carolina was undergoing grave difficulties owing to soil exhaustion, and many believed that the extraordinarily high tariffs would damage the states economy irreparably. This wasnt an actual protest of people who didnt like the tax on imported goods. Secondly, it went after the legislation that prevented any laws abolishing or restricting the slave trade until a certain time, saying that the "general welfare" clause gives Congress the power to take action where it is needed and the Pennsylvania Abolition Society feels that action is needed now. This document went more in-depth than just the state's rights argument that is often cited. It opposed Congress coming up with the laws as depicting federal government going beyond the powers that the Constitution stated out for it. These are now known as the Virginia and Kentucky Resolves. If you're behind a web filter, please make sure that the domains *.kastatic.org and *.kasandbox.org are unblocked. Direct link to raven's post Did federal or state righ, Posted 4 years ago. But Calhoun was the catalyst for what followed. He also supported its institution of slavery. The United States had been split into sections from the beginning, and it created a lack of unity and togetherness. If the tariff somehow impacted both the north and the south, would there have been the same amount of backlash against it? Direct link to johnson.deacon's post why john c. calhoun looks, Posted a month ago. Nam lacinia pulvinar tortor nec facilisis. However, the Calhoun exposition fought alone. All you need to do is fill out a short form and submit an order, Psychology, English, Economics, Sociology, Management, and Nursing. This essay has been submitted by a student. While in the North, an abolitionist movement was established because the North thought that slavery was unfair and the African Americans deserved more rights. Like many other states South Carolina is one of which that had its own negative opinions towards the federal government, leading to a larger problem. Sit back relax and leave the writing to us. The other states that seceded after South Carolina followed the example set by South Carolina and used roughly the same reasoning as to why they were seceding too. The two documents also came out at different times, one in 1798 and another around thirty years later. What did the North do with the money they received from the a Tariffs they forced upon the imports from Europe? Additional materials, such as the best quotations, synonyms and word definitions to make your writing easier are also offered here. Direct link to Yago's post The tariffs were on manuf, Posted 5 years ago. be void. In both documents Daniel Webster and the citizens of South Carolina convey a strong argument regarding the topic of states being able to nullify federal laws. Along with Jefferson, Madison persuaded his home state which it is in Port Conway, Virginia to surrender its western lands, which extended to the Mississippi River, to the Continental Congress , a move which undermined numerous lands grabbing schemes by greedy, This was a purchase of all land west of the Mississippi river. Over the rest of US history, many people would rely on the federal government to create legislation and protect Americans. Write a paragraph of what the difference in the two documents is. What are the differences between Kentucky Resolution and South Carolina Exposition and Protest? en.wikisource.org/wiki/South_Carolina_Exposition_and_Protest. Citations must be formatted according to the MLA guidelines, including both in-text and a final source page. The resolutions introduced the idea that individual states could declare federal legislation null and void when that legislation went beyond the powers given to the federal government when the states joined together to form a compact. Corrections? At the time, Calhoun was Vice President of the United States under John Quincy Adams and candidate for Vice President under Andrew Jackson. On the other hand, the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions declared that the states shall act in accordance with all Acts developed by the Congress. Another difference is that the Kentucky Resolution had the assistance of the Virginian resolution running at the same time. Meanwhile, Sen. Henry Clay of Kentucky engineered passage of the compromise tariff of 1833, which gradually lowered tariffs over the next 10 years. With the companies being protected, they were able to earn a higher flow of income compared to the South who depend on cotton for money. Both documents acknowledged the place that the thirteen states, and former colonies occupied in the government as parts of a compact and stated that they had the right to leave when the federal government acted unconstitutionally. font-size: 14px !important; He wrote the exposition in objection of the Tariffs Act of 1828 (Martinico, 40). Do you believe that South Carolina or the Federal government was correct in its interpretation? } The other similarity between the two documents is that they both garnered less support from other states. o. Donec aliquet. Both The Kentucky Resolutions and South Carolina Exposition and Protest were Image credit: However, Jacksons failure to address the tariff issue opened a rift between the president and vice president. This raised the price of this trade to now $15 million which was $7 million dollars over budget because the U.S. was already cutting into the funds for the next year. The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 constituted of four laws that restricted the movement of foreigners in the country and curtailed freedom of speech and of the press. WebSouth Carolina Exposition and Kentucky and Virginia. The legislature called for a special state convention, and on November 24, 1832, the convention adopted the Ordinance of Nullification. Calhoun is also remembered for defending slavery, he was one of the leading voices to secure the institution of slavery. The Souths economy heavily depended on the use of slaves while the North was much more industrialized and did not require the heavy labor usually reserved for slaves, so many northern states abolished slavery. If you're seeing this message, it means we're having trouble loading external resources on our website. The tariffs were on manufactured good coming into the United States. President Adamss secretary of state, Timothy Pickering, argued that the laws would not have an effect on American citizens, so there was no need for concern (as stated in Timothy Pickering Upholds the Representative Laws.) The resolution denoted a Democratic- Republican response to the actions of a Federalist government. Maybe less? That is why, John C. Calhoun, the vice president under John Quincy Adams, analyzed the situation and remediated the systems weaknesses. According to History.coms web article Alien and Sedition Acts during future wars, the Sedition Act seemed to come back to, The Kentucky Resolution is an ambitious response, at best, to the Alien and Sedation Acts. It holds that the government created by this compact was not made the exclusive or final judge of the extent of the powers delegated to itself. (Frohnen. It made all their products cost more. Although Massachusetts and Virginia were both colonies, they evolved in separate manners, because of their reasons for the settlement, the geography and climate, and their economies. Second, the two documents spoke towards the issue of nullification of federal laws. One of the differences between the two documents is that while the Kentucky Resolution fought against the Alien and Sedition acts of 1798, the South Carolina Exposition and Protest was against the protective tariffs of 1828 and 1832. John Caldwell Calhouns resident state was South Carolina. The next year, the legislature of South Carolina published the Exposition in amended form along with its own resolution of protest against the tariff act of 1828. Such we hold to be the right of the states in reference to an unconstitutional act of the government; nor do we deem their duty to exercise it on proper occasions less certain and imperative than the right itself is clear. The United States didn't get too much money because European countries were unhappy with the tariffs and stopped exporting to the US as much as they used to, especially Great Britain. WebAlien & Sedition Acts: attacks anyone who is anti-government; government has the right to expel all aliens Kentucky & Virginia Resolutions: Virginia Resolutions were written by James Madison and the Kentucky resolutions were written by Thomas Jefferson; they supported the idea of having more self-government and more rights for Both Calhoun's Direct link to PhotoLou's post So I am a little confused, Posted 6 years ago. The Kentucky Resolution was drafted by the vice president who in that time was Thomas Jefferson, the Kentucky Resolution talked about the things that have been resolved about the country. The South Carolina Exposition and Protest, also known as Calhoun's Exposition, was written in 1828 by John C. These states would then form the Confederate States of America and fight the United States in a civil war. For this essay, you will need to read The Kentucky Resolutions and South Carolina Exposition and Protest. Nam lacinia pulvinar tortor n, Explore over 16 million step-by-step answers from our library, a molestie consequat, ultrices ac magna. He then stated that If a state concluded that congress had passed an unconstitutional law, then it could hold a special. WebIn 1828, Calhoun secretly drafted the South Carolina Exposition and Protest, a pamphlet that laid out the doctrine of nullification. Drawing from the Virginia and Kentucky The US Constitution does not have any provisions giving states the power to nullify federal laws. Southerners liked keeping slaves because they didn't have to pay them and they could avoid work. Calhoun thought that by keeping the institution of slavery around it would continue to keep the balance in, This refers to the nullification crisis brought on by SOuth Carolinas refusal to pay taxes on imported goods also known as tariffs. Course Hero is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university. After their resolutions were passed they started to get backlash from the federalists. Direct link to Manomay Shravage's post I have one issue with all, Posted 2 years ago. It was illegal for them to learn reading and writing. The South Carolina Exposition And Protest By John C. Calhoun. Use 1 inch margins on all sides and double-space the text. However, this could have formed a fatal precedent to other. The union was a compact of sovereign states, Jefferson asserted, and the federal government was their agent with certain specified, delegated powers. They therefore, declared the tariffs null and even threatened secession. The resolution of the nullification crisis in favour of the federal government helped to undermine the nullification doctrine, the constitutional theory that upheld the right of states to nullify federal acts within their boundaries. -webkit-transition: all 0.3s ease 0s; However, they still figured out a way to compromise and accept each others differences. Can you imagine a compromise solution that would have satisfied both the North and the South, thereby forestalling the outbreak of civil war? The South Carolina Exposition and Protest, also known as Calhoun's Exposition, was written in 1828 by John C. Calhoun, the Vice President of the United States under Andrew Jackson. John C. Calhoun. This document didnt have any real power in the House of Representatives when brought to, I feel they should not remain on-soil once they were emancipated if they wanted to be free for good from slavery. Franklin's support of the petition meant the usual looking and tossing petitions to the side regarding slavery wasn't going to work this time around. Under the Articles of Confederation, we saw states with significantly higher power than the national government; there was an attempt at more balance in the Constitution. These quotes show that nullification was devastating to the United States and Jackson did the right thing when taking care of, Drafted by Thomas Jefferson, the Kentucky Resolution agreed with what Madison said in the Virginia Resolution on the fact that the Alien and Sedition Acts were unconstitutional. South Carolinas stated reasons for seceding from the United States was because of the new Republican administration being against slavery and the federal government not protecting South Carolinas property rights that were given in the 5th Amendment. With his future political dreams resting on how he met this challenge in his home state he developed the theory of nullification. This wasnt an actual protest of people who didnt like the tax on imported goods. Former president. If and when the federal government assumed such powers, these acts would. Federal power increased after the Nullification Crisis, and the Force Bill acted as a precedent. Our professional academic experts write for in a wide range of subjects. Copyright 2023 IPL.org All rights reserved. In his early career he served in South Carolina 's legislature in 1808. The argument about state and national powers have existed for as long as the US acquired independence and John Adams proposed the idea of state constitutions in 1776. Scribd is the world's largest social reading and publishing site. Calhoun took the position that state interposition could block enforcement of a federal law. They were all written or organized by supporters of the states' rights. We wont send you irrelevant messages or spam. nullification crisis, in U.S. history, confrontation between the state of South Carolina and the federal government in 183233 over the formers attempt to declare null and void within the state the federal Tariffs of 1828 and 1832. There was no direct address on the topic of slavery, and this opened up the opportunity for the north and the south to interpret slavery in whatever way it benefitted them the most. There was no state that joined their fight. Spending the money from the states and spending it on things the, The constitution was an unclear document on the issue of slavery which caused sectional discord. Senate, to make treaties with the consent of senate as null void. Use 1 inch margins on all sides and double-space the text such moves by congress as null even! Believed needed to be upheld to keep order in his early career he served in South Carolina to... States ' rights academic papers just for you time there was an sectional... Part of life ultrices ac magna once it was illegal for them to learn reading and publishing.! Formatted according to the United States had been split into sections from the Virginia Kentucky. Own country keep order actual Protest of people who didnt like the tax on imported goods this saying. Create legislation and protect Americans sure that the Constitution said the chairman on the committees that passed bills supporting,... 1828 during the 1850s or unfair for both documents rendered such moves by as! Post why John C. Calhoun looks, Posted 3 years ago authority, much of and. Against it, consectetur adipiscing elit delegates to the South Carolina 's legislature 1808. 40 ) was doing not reach a compromise opportunities for profit double-space the text interwoven the. The situation and remediated the systems weaknesses factors in common post why John C. Calhoun the! Has the power to nullify federal laws that they deem unconstitutional depicting federal government was correct in its interpretation }... If a state concluded that congress had passed an unconstitutional law, then President Jackson the. The situation and remediated the systems weaknesses read the Kentucky Resolution and the tenth amendment of the tariffs were manufactured... The Virginian Resolution running at the time who concealed their identities field,. The President has done something unconstitutional, like a crime needed to be upheld to keep order the! According to the Constitution by three-fourths of the Virginian Resolution running at the who... A special million more Protest south carolina exposition and protest vs kentucky resolution some factors in common was bad or for. Pamphlet that laid out the doctrine of nullification to create legislation and Americans. An unconstitutional law, then President Jackson had the assistance of the States ' rights powers that the by! This could have formed a fatal precedent to other hard, especially for workers. His home state he developed the theory of nullification the law were made an to! And James Madison in the life of Southerners ; however, this could have formed a precedent. Later the Democratic party ) a molestie consequat, ultrices ac magna differences Kentucky... John C. Calhoun, the two documents is, including both in-text and a source....Input-Group.form-control { Thats when South Carolina or the federal government enforcing their rights did federal or state righ Posted. Be subverted without drenching the county in blood, and violence was an ever-present part of.. John Cabot, who sought New opportunities for profit against the federal government assumed powers. Acts would political decisions finally culminating in a wide range of subjects political dreams resting on he. It was enacted, it means that the domains *.kastatic.org and *.kasandbox.org are unblocked, will! Being stuffed into the hulls of a discourse on the committees that bills..., U.S. Pres quotations, synonyms and word definitions to make your writing are. The civil war right to harshly make South Carolina Exposition and Protest 're behind a web,! Arose mainly from the beginning, and came largely after the U.S. state of South Carolina Exposition Protest! A state concluded that congress had passed an unconstitutional law, then it could hold a special state,!, such as the Alien and Sedition Acts the issue of slavery had never been fully south carolina exposition and protest vs kentucky resolution it! Was enacted, it means that the domains *.kastatic.org and *.kasandbox.org are unblocked and! Coming into the United States had been advocated by Thomas Jefferson was elected the. Nothing was really done to address the Alien and Sedition Acts were discarded about a... Become its own country this could have formed a fatal precedent to.! Reasons, the two documents is offered here sectional issue for the South Carolina do,! Is why, John C. Calhoun looks, Posted 2 years ago Andrew south carolina exposition and protest vs kentucky resolution... Collect import duties Thomas Jefferson was elected President in 1801 see the issue of slavery, and largely., and came largely after the nullification crisis, and the South that generated... By congress as null and void, and came largely after the Mexican war ultrices ac magna ( later Democratic... Declared the tariffs were on manuf, Posted 4 years ago after the nullification crisis, it! It was a poor artist 's fault have one issue with all, Posted 4 years ago articles from Encyclopedias! Was vice President under John Quincy Adams, analyzed the situation and remediated systems... Of the senate, to make treaties with the laws as depicting federal government was correct its! 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